The purpose of this paper is to analyze fatwas issued by Ibn Taymiyya(1263-1328) against Mongol rulers and troops. And this paper would like to examine how modern extreme Islamists used his views to justify their violence or terrorism against Muslims.
It is known that between about 1299 and 1313 Ibn Taymiyya issued three fatwas against the Mongols of the Ilkhanate. In his fatwas Ibn Taymiyya argued that even though the Mongol rulers claim to be Muslims themselves, they cannot be seen as true believers because they do not comply with Islamic laws. And on this basis he came up with a legal interpretation that proclaiming jihad against them is legally legitimate.
Ibn Taymiyya's fatwas regarding the Mongols established a precedent for modern extreme Islamists such as Sayyid Qutb, Muḥammad 'Abd al-Salām Faraj, al-Qaeda, and the Islamic State(IS). They used the logic in Ibn Taymiyya's fatwas on the Mongols to claim that it is legally justified to kill “un-Islamic” Muslim rulers or to destroy their regimes.

Turkic literature (Turk Edebiyatı) is a long-standing common cultural heritage shared by Turkey and the countries of Central Asia based on oral traditions. In Turkic culture, oral traditions are not only the literary poetry of rhyme and rhythm but are also the basis for modern folk songs, funeral songs, plays, games, and the like. Prior to Islamization, oral literature was conveyed by shamans (Kam) in religious rituals (dinitöreni), festivals (şölen), hunting ceremonies (sığır), and rites of passage, based on celestial thought and shamanism. The shaman was a political leader, priest, artist, therapist (doctor), and mentor; in other words, he(she) led the tribe, of which he(she) was the focal point. As Islam gradually consolidated its power in tribal nations, the original functions of shamans weakened. The shaman was later transformed into an ozan, performing only some of the functions of a bard, storyteller, and narrator. As literature has passed through the era of mythology, which has a shamanic nature, recording history in mysterious terms, an era of literature functioning only in the artistic realm has arrived. Oral traditions have subsequently been written down and passed down, as with the changing process of oral literature. Pre-Islamic Turkic oral literature reflects the Turks' view of the universe, the world, humans, life, and death, and is a valuable resource for examining their faith, tradition, and customs. More specifically, before the arrival of Islam, celestial thought (Göktanrıcılık), shamanism, totemism (wolf, deer, eagle, etc.), animism, Buddhism, and Manichaeism had considerable influence on the Turkic tribes. In particular, the Turks' main beliefs (animism) were principally beliefs in natural spirits, along with ancestor worship (atalar kultu). The objects of worship include the sun (guneş), moon (ay), stars (yıldızlar), planets (gezegenler), yer-sub (god of mother earth, god of nature), fire (ateş), water (su), mountains (orman), trees (ağaç), land (toprak), stones (taşve kaya), and the like. This traditional belief influenced the whole nomadic life and was incorporated into the oral literature through the magical power of the language. As such, oral literature is at the heart of Turkic culture. Therefore, understanding their oral literature will help us understand their culture and literature, while giving us further insight into the multicultural aspects of modern society.

Sectarian conflicts in the Middle East has become more acute recently. On the basis of a instrumentalist and constructivist and institutional approach, this study attempted to comparison between domestic and regional variables to understand of which variable has been more associated with sectarianism. Among the most important regional political transformers in the 21st century, this paper dealt with the Iraq War, the Arab Spring and Syrian civil war, and the conclusion of the Iran nuclear deal. As for the domestic political variable, the appointment of Saudi Arabia's crown prince was selected as the most important political transformer in Saudi political stability or regime survival.
To compare the four domestic and regional transformers, frequencies of news articles containing all three search terms - Shia, Iran and Saudi Arabia - were quantitatively measured via Google News. A time series analysis applied to the irregular variation of the significant political variables confirms the hypothesis of the study that domestic political stability and regime survival have a more significant causal relationship with the Sunni-Shiite conflict than the regional political variables.

Considering that the concept of sovereign state emerged in Western society, this study attempts to explain how incomplete sovereignty could exacerbate political instability in the Middle East. The aspects of incomplete sovereignty of the Middle East can be defined as the absence of non-interference in the internal affairs, hybridization of security, and emergence of the separatist movement. In particular, the case study of the Syrian civil war revealed how these elements could have severe consequences in the political situation in Syria. In light of the significance of sovereignty, further research is needed to examine various effects of incomplete sovereignty on Middle Eastern politics.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of teaching reading using cloze-test activities on Arabic learners' reading ability and their attitude toward Arabic reading learning. The subjects for this study were divided into two groups: an experimental group and a control group. The experimental group read Arabic texts using a cloze-test which involved completing an Open Ended Cloze-test and C-test. The control group read Arabic texts using a traditional grammar-translation method. To examine their improvement of Arabic reading ability, learners took Arabic ability test before and after the experiment. To examine the learners' attitude toward Arabic reading learning were asked to fill out a questionnaire before and after the experiment.
The results of this study were as follows:
First, using the cloze-test, especially the C-test technique was found to be effective in improving learners' Arabic reading ability. Second, using the cloze-test improved learners' Arabic reading ability at all levels for intermediate level learners. The most significant difference was seen among the high proficiency learners using the cloze-test technique. Third, using the cloze-test had a positive influence on learners' attitude toward Arabic reading learning.