Nationalism was an ideology that unified nations in the making of a new modern state, a modern society. Nationalism entails resistance to other ethnic groups, modernity for the need of modernization, and the hierarchy of forces leading it. Nationalism was able to develop while the history, literature, and language that embodied the national spirit transitioned to modern scholarship. In this sense, through their aspiration to be a university, by offering academic studies (science, history, language) and education that fostered outstanding Korean individuals, Severance Medical College and Yonhee College (Chosen Christian College) played an important role in the growth of nationalism. Severance was a gateway to advanced Western medical science and technology. Missionaries acknowledged the cultural and educational capabilities of Koreans and provided education for Korea by founding educational institutions. The professors who maintained these academic studies and those who grew up in them all contributed to the development of various kinds of nationalism. This was the case with the March 1st Independence Movement as well as the June 10th Independence Movement and can be seen also by the participation in Heung Sa Dahn (Young Korean Academy) and Suyang-dongwoo-hai (수양동우회), led by Christian nationalists. In addition, Severance took on the role of educating the Korean people by conducting health care education for the Korean public. Yonhee and Severance planned to ultimately merge the two schools to form a university for academic studies and education. The new succession of nationalism developed at Severance and Yeonhee today will be a good opportunity for not only universities but also for Korean society, which celebrates the 100th anniversary of the March 1st Independence Movement.

In 1918 and 1919, the Yonhee district of Goyang County, on the outskirts of Kyeongseong (Joseon's capital) was an ideal “new Hawaii.” The place was the site of rebellious resistance toward imperialism. It was also where the young intellectuals of the Joseon Dynasty learned of the changing outside worlds and gained knowledge and ideologies that connected the situation on the peninsula to the historic transition on a global scale. The knowledge of change and the principles of national self-determination were so much more than simple information. They became a world view and an ideology of freedom and equality that ultimately came to life through action. It was an idea of a republic that had to be materialized in reality.
Putting these ideas into practice became the movement, and Minjok (Korean people as a whole) was recognized as the principal agent of the movement. Through the March 1st Movement, the young intellectuals attending Yonhee College began to clearly recognize Minjok as a political unit, an active agent that transformed the national ideals of a modern era into reality. The March 1st Movement thus marks the beginning of a modern Korea under nationalism.

This article deals with Frank W. Schofield and Oliver R. Avison, who were two of the missionaries who most actively reacted to the March 1st Independence Movement. They shared a common identity as missionaries and Canadians. As Canadians, they could take advantage of the amiable relationship between Britain and Japan. From the outset, they were supportive of the March 1st Independence Movement and endeavored to help the movement, criticizing the Japanese authorities' brutal crackdown on street protests.
Schofield was able to assist the movement because of the support of Avison, along with Armstrong, the Secretary of the Canadian Presbyterian Mission. He was threatened by the Japanese police for his activities in support of the movement, which caused him to return home in April 1920. Back in Canada, he continued to give speeches and write about the situation in Korea.
Avison could not show his sympathy for the March 1st Movement as overtly as Schofield did because of his responsibilities at Severance Hospital, its Medical College, and Yeonhi College. However, he tried his best by criticizing Japanese colonialism and conveying information about the situation in Korea overseas. His membership in the Commission on Relations with the Orient of the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America was related to this. When he went back to the United States after retirement, he helped Syngman Rhee's activities toward Korean independence. Further, he organized the Christian Friends of Korea with American and Canadian colleagues to support the approval of the Korean Provisional Government and the independence movement of Koreans.

The purpose of this study was to reveal the names of nurses of Severance who endeavored for Korean independence under Japanese rule and to identify the efforts of each individual. In this study, “nurses of Severance” refers to the probationer nurses, student nurses, and graduate nurses who studied at Severance Nursing School, including those nurses who could not graduate nursing school.
The nurses of Severance began their independence movement when they cured soldiers wounded in the protest against the dissolution of the Korean Army who had been brought to Severance Hospital in 1907. In 1919, the March 1st Movement provoked their action again. We could identify the names of 11 nurses of Severance who endeavored for Korean independence. They are Lee A-Joo, Tak Myong-Sook, Lee Jeong-Sook, Park Ok-Shin, Yoon Jin-Soo, Noh Soon-Kyong, Park Deok-Hye, Lee Doh-Shin, Kim Hyo-Soon, Jang Yoon-Hee, and Jeong Jong-Myong.
While Korea was under Japanese rule, Lee A-Joo and Tak Myong-Sook participated in the March 1st Mansei demonstration. Tak Myong-Sook also aided Kang Woo-Gyu, who fired a shot at Korean governor Saito in September 1919 before taking refuge. Noh Soon-Kyong, Park Deok-Hye, Lee Doh-Shin, and Kim Hyo-Soon participated in the Hoon-Jeong Dong Jong-Myo (Ancestral Shrine) Mansei demonstration. Jeong Jong-Myong protected fighters for independence who were disguised as patients at Severance Hospital and delivered documents related to the independence movement. Jang Yoon-Hee distributed Fighter for Independence.
After the March 1st Movement, Lee Jeong-Sook, Park Ok-Shin, and Yoon Jin-Soo organized and participated in women's independence societies such as the Hyeolseong Corps Women's Association, the Korean Patriotic Women's Society, and the Korean Red Cross. They recruited members of women's independence societies, organized and extended branches, aided prisoners and their families, and collected funds for the independence movement. Although we can't identify all their names, many other nurses of Severance also endeavored for Korean independence.
One hundred years ago, nurse was one of the most highly educated jobs. Nurses of Severance actively endeavored for Korean independence using their expertise in acquisition and networks of friends during a national crisis situation, Japanese colonial rule. They retained their patriotic spirit for Korean independence throughout the process of arrest, interrogation, and trial. They endured a severe inquisition and poor circumstances in prison. After getting out of prison, they struggled consistently for national development and independence by engaging women's educational and social activities.

Most of the doctors who served in the Korean Provisional Government in Shanghai (hereafter “KPGS”) provided nursing education based on their expertise or worked as a practitioner. Particularly notable were the activities of Severance graduates in the KPGS who mainly engaged in opening hospitals in areas where Koreans were concentrated or near Avenue Joffre (Shafeilu霞飛路), the main street in the French Concession. Perhaps opening a hospital on a busy street was advantageous for gathering information and carrying out fundraising for the independence movement. The radius of Kim Chang-se's activities, which helped establish the Korean Red Cross and the Korean Red Cross Nursing School, was mainly a residential area in the French Concession. The activities were deeply related to Kim Chang-se running the Korean Red Cross and Korean Red Cross Nursing School, not far from his residence and place of work, as he was serving as a member of the Chinese Red Cross General Hospital prior to the establishment of the KPGS. Na Chang-heon was relatively distant from the city, but he was close to the KPGS.
In the 1920s, the medical environment was changing quickly with the rapid development of Western medicine in East Asian countries and the development of X-rays and experimental medicine. Various medical facilities, including general hospitals and individual clinics, were needed to meet the diverse needs of Korean patients. But there were no large general hospitals run independently by South Koreans, so at general hospitals such as the Chinese Red Cross General Hospital, Kim Chang-se and others would have met the demand.
It is difficult to estimate the size of Jeong Young-jun's Goryeo Hospital, Cynn Hyun-chang's Haechun Hospital, and Na Chang-heon's Sewung Hospital because all of them have disappeared, and high-rise buildings are now located on the sites where they had been. On the other hand, we can estimate the size of Ju hyeon-cheuk and Cynn Hyun-chang's Samil Hospital and Kim Chang-se's Xihu Tuberculosis Clinic and the individual clinics of the time, as the old buildings and lakes remain intact. Usually, the hospitals were not allowed to hospitalize patients or perform operations, and only simple treatments and procedures were available in a small office space of around 7 to 10㎡. Under poor medical conditions, medical independence activists also had to meet the Korean people's demands for sanitation and health care. However, it was not easy for the independence activists, who had to engage in both the independence movement and the opening of their businesses in foreign lands, to seek a larger hospital or get a job at a large general hospital. The best they could do to support the independent movement was to open hospitals on the main street of the French Concession.

This article deals with the operation and development of the medical learning officer program. In particular, I tracked the activities of 25 medical learning officers, and in this article, the core ruling elite, the general running class, and the medical learning officer's positions are reviewed.
The medical learning officer program was a system for training the ruling class as literati physicians and appointing them as medical officers. The program began when Lee Hyo-ji and others were made to read medical textbooks in the third year of King Sejong's reign (1421), and later, the present civil officers were transferred to the position of medical learning officers.
The medical learning officer program was strengthened throughout the 15th century and included as a regulation in King Seongjong's legal book, Gyeonggukdaejeon (經國大典). According to this Act, there were 30 medical learning officers who had been appointed alternately to the primary posts for salary payment. They had to learn medical textbooks such as Injejikjibang (仁齋直指方) and Chandomaekgyeol (纂圖脈訣). The medical learning officer's mission was to operate the medical system as a whole, including medical textbook research, medical education, compilation of medical textbooks, and treatment of patients.
By the late 15th century, however, the medical learning officer positions were neglected. The idea that the medical post was not a major post for the ruling class was gradually reinforced. The position of the founding forces of Joseon and the kings of Early Joseon who drafted and implemented the medical learning officer program was a well-informed Confucianist theory, and the general ruling class position that regarded the medical post as the post of professional doctors was discriminatory.
The medical learning officer program was already at its peak under the reign of King Seongjong. The program rapidly declined after King Yonsangun, when the ruling class was no longer interested in the medical learning officer program.

Japan's attempt to transplant modern Western medicine and its refusal to accept basic traditional medicine required a major change for doctors of traditional medicine in Korea. Although their medical care status allowed them to keep their medical qualification as doctors, traditional medical doctors could not avoid a confrontation with modern hospitals in order to remain practicing as doctors. The disadvantage of being given to traditional medicine under medical policy and the yet accumulated wealth of traditional medicine clinics were still hard to avoid losing.
Besides the establishment of modern hospitals, the Joseon Corporation Exhibition held in 1915 was a space that boasted of the presidentialism of Western medicine and demonstrated the governor-general's medical policy. Stimulated by this, the Korean medical community tried to organize medical patients while preparing for the nationwide live events. One of the topics that doctors noticed at this time was the discussion of improving the hygiene in traditional medical clinics. Although it was difficult to argue with Western hospitals on any scale due to the lack of capital, it was suggested that they should improve the structure of traditional medicine clinics and strengthen the cleanliness to be, at least, based on established sanitation practices. When Korea entered modern society, there were attempts to relocate traditional medicine clinics, which was a place to practice pre-modern medical theory, to a modern view. However, due to the limitation of the lack of capital, traditional medicine itself could not be completely reconstructed from a modern point of view. The traditional medicine reform theory that had emerged around 1910 was pushed to the limit and was ultimately not sustainable.